OverviewPermalink
For asset pricing, we have the following approaches:
- Replication
- Adjusting for risk premium (Market Price for Risk)
- Risk-neutral Pricing
- Discrete: Tree model
- Continuous: Martingale approach
- PDE approach
In fact, these are equivalent ways of pricing. There is no “best” method, and we should choose a method depending on the context.
FrameworkPermalink
Binomial Model FrameworkPermalink
For simplicity, let’s assume a binomial model framework, which can be easily extended to multi-steps or continuous models (e.g. Black-Scholes models). It is also extensively used by practitioners to price real securities.
A short tick later(Δt),the stock price can jump up to Su with probability p and jump down to Sd with probability (1-p).
The bond price is not random. Let r be the continuously compounded risk-free rate. If the initial price of a cash bond is D0=1, then a short tick later, the bond price will grow to D0∗erΔt=erΔt
A derivative paysoff fu if the stock price goes up and fd if the stock price goes down.
Question: What is the initial price of the derivative?
The unconscious statistician might pay f=e−rΔt(pfu+(1−p)fd) ,i.e.the expectation of future payoffs discounted by the risk-free rate.
But, this answer is wrong. Since there is uncertainty in the future price of f, investors require risk-premium to take the risk. Therefore, we need to add risk-premium to the discounted rate.
Equivalent definition in terms of returns:
P0=e−r0ΔE0[P1]−λ0(P1,u−P1,d)So far, we have no idea how to “price” this MPR term.
Black-Scholes FrameworkPermalink
1. There are no market imperfections. That is, there are no taxes, no transactions costs, and no short-sale constraints. Security trading is frictionless;
2. security trading is continuous;
3. there is unlimited risk-free borrowing and lending at the constant continuously compounded risk-free rate r .
4. the stock price follows a geometric Brownian motion with constant growth rate μ and constant volatility parameter σ dSt=μStdt+σStdBt,
5. there are no dividends during the life of the derivative to be evaluated;
6. there are no risk-less arbitrage opportunities.
Ito’s lemma: a formula used to calculate explicitly the stochastic differential equation (SDE) that governs the dynamics of an arbitrary function given the stochastic process of the function’s arguments.
Let x and y follows the SDEs dx=μ1dt+σ1dBxt
Ito’s lemma basically says that we need to do Taylor’s expansion to the second order. The multiplication rules for stochastic differentials:
xdBxdBydtdBxdtρdt0dBydt0dt0Modeling of the Stock Price
We typically model stock prices as a geometric Brownian motion or lognormal diffusion under measure P:
dSt=μdSt+σStdBtwith a constant growth rate μ and a constant diffusion parameter σ.
If the underlying stock does not distribute dividends, then dStSt=The return of investment over the period of [t,t+dt] is given by:
expected return μdt+unexpected return σdBt.In a risk-neutral world: dSt=rStdt+σStdBQt
1. The log-price pt=lnSt follows a Brownian motion dpt=(μ−12σ2)dt+σdBt
It is easy to prove with Ito’s lemma. In fact:
dpt=∂pt∂tdt+∂pt∂StdSt+12∂2pt∂S2t(dSt)2=1St(μStdt+σStdBt)+12(−1S2t)(μStdt+σStdBt)2=(μ−12σ2)dt+σdBtSimilarly,we can show that p follows dpt=(r−12σ2)dt+σdBQt under the risk-neutral measure Q
The log-price pt=lnSt follows a geometric Brownian
- The probability density function of a lognormal random variable is:
- The mean and the variance of a lognormal random variance are
Application
Since dlnSt=dpt=(r−12σ2)dt+σdBQt, we have
lnST=lnS0+(r−12σ2)T+σ(BT−B0)Therefore, log price at maturity lnST∼N(μ∗,σ2∗)
where μ=lnS0+(r−12σ2)T and σ2∗=σ2T.
Therefore, the density function of ST is
f(S(T))=1√2πσ√TS(T)e−(lnS(T)S(0)(r−12σ2)T)22σ2TReplicationPermalink
First let’s introduce some important concepts:
Based on this principle, we have the following law:
A replicating portfolio of a security with payoffs Pu and Pd in the two node u and d at time 1 is a portfolio of D and S that exactly replicates the values of the security at time 1.
We construct a portfolio out of the stock and the cash bond to mimic the payoffs of the derivative. This portfolio is called “replicating portfolio.” Then the price of the derivative must be the same as the price of the replicating portfolio by the law of one price.
Let x be the stock holding strategy and let y be the bond holding strategy. The unit of x and y is number of shares. Then the price and the payoffs of the portfolio are as shown in the following diagram:
{xsu+yerΔt=fuxsd+yerΔt=fdBy the law of one price, this must also be the price of the derivative otherwise there exists an arbitrage opportunity.
f0=xs0+y=e−rΔt(erΔts0−sdsu−sdfu+(1−erΔts0−sdsu−sd)fd)The above procedure implies several points:
- To construct a replicating portfolio, we should buy x=fu−fdsu−sd shares of the stock
- For any risky-asset, we can always form x,y, s.t. xS0+yD0 will replicate the payoffs of the risky-asset
Risk-neutral pricingPermalink
In last part, we show:
f0=xs0+y=e−rΔt(erΔts0−sdsu−sdfu+(1−erΔts0−sdsu−sd)fd)Let q=erΔts0−sdsu−sd, then
f0=xs0+y=e−rΔt(qfu+(1−q)fd)This Pricing formula looks like what we want — the price of the derivative is the expectation of the future payoffs discounted at the risk-free rate!
1. There is No Arbitrage
2. There exist valid risk-neutral probabilities
(That is, q∈[0,1] in the case of the one-step binomial model.)
For q=erΔts0−sdsu−sd, we can prove that q∈[0,1] by non-arbitrage assumption.
For example, erΔts0≥sd, otherwise there is an arbitrage opportunity by short D and long S.
So, q is the “risk-neutral probability.” A collection of risk-neutral probabilities q,1−q on the set of all possible outcomes {up, down} is called risk-neutral probability measure or simply risk-neutral measure, denoted by Q.
The price of the derivative is the expected future payoffs under the risk-neutral measure Q discounted by the risk-free rate.
f0=xs0+y=e−rΔt(qfu+(1−q)fd)Note, q depends only on the risk-free rate r, current stock price s0 and the future possible stock prices su and sd. It does not depend on the true probability p at all.
Summary: 5-step risk-neutral derivative pricing rule in the binomial branch framework
- Step 1: Discount the stock price, SΔt , by using risk-free rate to have discounted stock price, e−rΔtSΔt ;
- Step 2: Find a measure Q that makes the discounted stock price a martingale;
- Step 3: Discount the derivative, fΔt , by using risk-free rate to have discounted stock price, e−rΔtfΔt ;
- Step 4: Calculate the expectation of the discounted derivative price under measure Q.
- Step 5: Calculate hedge ratio x=fu−fdsu−sd, s.t. f=xS+yD
Martingale ApproachPermalink
(i) EP(XT∣Xt,…,X0)=Xt, for all T>t, and
(ii) EP(|XT|)<∞, for all T
Therefore, the risk-free discounted stock price is a martingale under the risk-neutral measure Q.
Since any risky asset can be expressed as f=xtSt+ytDt, he risk-free discounted derivative is also a martingale under the risk-neutral measure Q. So the risk-neutral measure Q is also called “equivalent martingale measure.”
The 5-step risk-neutral pricing rule works in the continuous-time. The difference from the discrete-time is that we now have to identify the density function of the underlying under the risk-neutral probability measure and then do an integration to evaluate the risk-neutral expectation of the discounted derivative payoff.
Specifically, we have the Harrison-Pliska (1981) risk-neutral valuation formula.
c(S0,0)=e−rTEQ(c(ST,T))c(St,t)=e−r(T−t)EQt(c(ST,T))Market Price of RiskPermalink
Equivalent definition in terms of returns:
P0=e−r0ΔE0[P1]−λ0(P1,u−P1,d)So far, we have no idea how to “price” this MPR term.
We can easily prove that all risky asset has a same MPR λ, by the replication approach f=xS+yD.
Risk-neutral vs. physical probabilitiesPermalink
Physical probabilities (pu and pd in the context of the binomial model) describe the actual likelihood of events occurring.
Risk-neutral probabilities (qu and qd in the context of the binomial model) follow from No Arbitrage and is a construct used for pricing.
What is the relationship between the two? How do we interpret this relationship?
Consider an asset which only pays 1 in state u and zero otherwise.
We can price asset using the MPR approach:
P0=pue−r0Δ−λ0(1−0)We can also use risk-neutral pricing:
P0=que−r0ΔSince the two are equal:
p∗u:=qu=pu−λ0er0ΔSimilarly,
p∗d:=qd=pd+λ0er0ΔSummary:
p∗u=pu−λ0er0Δp∗d=pd+λ0er0ΔFor λ0=0, they are the same.
PDE approachPermalink
The Black-scholes formula for the price of vanilla call/put options is a function of five arguments.
Let ct be the price of a option at time t; Let St be the underlying stock price at time t; Let τ=T−t be the time-to-maturity, where T is the maturity time; Let K be the strike price; Let r be the constant risk-free rate; Let σ be the return volatility of the underlying stock; Then ct=C(St,τ=T−t;K,r,σ). The option price ct is the dependent variable. The current stock price St and the current time t are the independent variables. The rest are parameters.
Assume the stock price St follows a geometric Brownian motion:
dSt=μStdt+σStdBtBy Ito’s lemma, we can derive the differential expression of the option price:
dct=∂ct∂tdtt+∂ct∂StdSt+12∂2ct∂S2t(dSt)2=∂ct∂tdtt+∂ct∂St(μStdt+σStdBt)+12∂2ct∂S2tσ2S2tdt=(∂ct∂t+12∂2ct∂S2tσ2S2t+μSt∂ct∂St)dt+σSt∂ct∂StdBtLet us long one unit of the option and short Δ units of the stock. The price of the portfolio at time t is:
Pt=ct−ΔStThe instantaneous dollar return on the portfolio is:
dPt=dct−ΔdSt=(∂ct∂t+12∂2ct∂S2tσ2S2t+μSt(∂ct∂St−Δ))dt+σSt(∂ct∂St−Δ)dBtBy choosing Δ=∂Ct∂St, we ge want a risk-neutral portfolio. Such a portfolio is said to be perfectly hedged or Delta-neutral portfolio
Since P becomes risk-free asset, now we have: dPt=rPtdt
After regrouping, we have the well-known Black and Scholes partial differential equation (PDE):
∂ct∂t+12σ2S2t∂2ct∂S2t+rSt∂ct∂St−rct=0This PDE is a second-order linear parabolic PDE for the option price ct subject to the following boundary condition:
CT(ST,T)=Max(ST−K,0)The unique solution to this PDE is the famous Black-Scholes formula:
c(St,t)=StΦ(d1)−Ke−r(T−t)Φ(d2)d1=ln(StK)+(r+12σ2)(T−t)σ√T−td2=ln(StK)+(r−12σ2)(T−t)σ√T−twhere Φ(⋅) is the standard normal cumulative distribution function.
How to solve the PDE for different Derivatives?
Heat equation: The temperature in a metal rod satisfies the standard heat equation with an initial condition f(x0,0)
{∂f∂t−12σ2∂2f∂x2=0f(x0,0)Delta function δ(x−x0) is defined as:
δ(x−x0)={0x≠x0+∞x=x0 and ∫∞−∞δ(x−x0)dx=1Green’s function G(x,t;x0) : Green’s function is a solution of the standard heat equation with a particular initial condition, which is the delta function δ(x−x0) :
{∂G∂t−12σ2∂2G∂x2=0G(x,0;x0)=δ(x−x0)The formula for Green’s function, which is the solution of the above PDE system, is
G(x,t;x0)=1√2πσ√te−(x−x0)22σ2tAs shown, Green’s function is like a density function of a normal random variable x with mean x0 and variance σ2t conditional on the initial state x .
The solution of the standard heat equation with an arbitrary initial condition f(x0,0) can be written in terms of Green’s function as
f(x,t)=∫+∞−∞f(x0,0)G(x,t;x0)dx0Summary of PDE approach:
Step 1: Transformation.
Let
τ=T−tc(S,t)=e−rτKf(x,τ)S=Ke−(r−12σ2)τ+xx=lnSK+(r−12σ2)τTheBlack-Scholes PDE:
∂ct∂t+12σ2S2t∂2ct∂S2t+rSt∂ct∂St−rct=0becomes:
{∂f∂τ−12σ2∂2f∂x2=0f(x0,0)The given boundary condition c(ST,T) becomes:
f(x0,0)=er∗0K∗c(ST,T)Example for vanilla European call, the new PDE system after transformation is
{∂f∂τ−12σ2∂2f∂x2=0f(x0,0)=Max(ex0−1,0)Step 2: Solve the new PDE
The transformed PDE system is a standard heat equation with an arbitrary initial condition. We know the solution to the transformed PDE system is
f(x,τ)=∫+∞−∞f(x0,0)G(x,τ;x0)dx0
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